Journal of Synthetic Crystals ›› 2026, Vol. 55 ›› Issue (4): 487-545.DOI: 10.16553/j.cnki.issn1000-985x.2025.0214
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CHEN Yihong1,2(
), ZHOU Xiaoqing1, XU Wenjing1,2, YU Yue1, ZHAO Yiru3, YANG Zhenni2, DONG Xin4, JIA Zhitai5, CHEN Duanyang6,7(
), QI Hongji2,6,7(
), ZHANG Hongliang1,3(
)
Received:2025-10-07
Online:2026-04-20
Published:2026-05-19
Contact:
CHEN Duanyang, QI Hongji, ZHANG Hongliang
CLC Number:
CHEN Yihong, ZHOU Xiaoqing, XU Wenjing, YU Yue, ZHAO Yiru, YANG Zhenni, DONG Xin, JIA Zhitai, CHEN Duanyang, QI Hongji, ZHANG Hongliang. Research Progress in Epitaxial Growth, Doping Control, and Defect Management of Gallium Oxide Thin Films[J]. Journal of Synthetic Crystals, 2026, 55(4): 487-545.
Fig.1 Schematic comparison of the bandgaps of various semiconductor materials. From left to right are the first-generation semiconductors (Si, Ge), second-generation semiconductors (GaAs, GaP), wide-bandgap materials (GaN, SiC), and ultra-wide-bandgap materials (β-Ga2O3, diamond, AlN)
Fig.3 Primary application scenarios of β-Ga2O3, including power electronics, radio frequency devices, solar-blind UV photodetectors, and deep-UV transparent electrodes
| 晶面 | 光学带隙/eV | 相对静态介电常数, εr/(F·m-1) | 热导率, κ/(W·m-1·K-1) | 表面能/(J·m-2) |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| (100) | 4.58 | 9.8~12.7[ | 9.5~18[ | B面 0.34~0.68 |
| A面 0.77~1.13 | ||||
| (010) | 4.90 | 10.9~11.2[ | 22.5~29.0[ | 1.49~1.75 |
| (001) | 4.54 | 10.9~12.4[ | 12.7~21.0[ | B面 0.97~1.40 |
| A面 1.83 | ||||
| ( | — | — | 14.33[ | 0.75~1.01 |
Table 1 Optical bandgap, relative dielectric constant, thermal conductivity, and surface energy of β -Ga2O3 at different crystal planes
| 晶面 | 光学带隙/eV | 相对静态介电常数, εr/(F·m-1) | 热导率, κ/(W·m-1·K-1) | 表面能/(J·m-2) |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| (100) | 4.58 | 9.8~12.7[ | 9.5~18[ | B面 0.34~0.68 |
| A面 0.77~1.13 | ||||
| (010) | 4.90 | 10.9~11.2[ | 22.5~29.0[ | 1.49~1.75 |
| (001) | 4.54 | 10.9~12.4[ | 12.7~21.0[ | B面 0.97~1.40 |
| A面 1.83 | ||||
| ( | — | — | 14.33[ | 0.75~1.01 |
| 化学键类型 | 键伸缩力常数/(eV·Å-2) | 悬挂键种类 | |||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| (100)B | (100)A | (010) | (001)B | (001)A | ( | ||
| Ga(I)—O(I) | 11.28 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 4 | 0 |
| Ga(I)—O(II) | 10.99 | 0 | 0 | 4 | 0 | 0 | 0 |
| Ga(I)—O(III) | 8.61 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 2 |
| Ga(II)—O(I) | 5.10 | 0 | 0 | 4 | 0 | 0 | 0 |
| Ga(II)—O(II) | 4.74 | 0 | 2 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 |
| Ga(II)—O(III) | 2.75 | 2 | 0 | 4 | 8 | 0 | 0 |
| 化学键密度/Å-2 | 0.11 | 0.11 | 0.17 | 0.20 | 0.10 | 0.10 | |
Table 2 Types of dangling bonds, density distribution, and calculated bond stretching force constants of β -Ga2O3 at different crystal planes
| 化学键类型 | 键伸缩力常数/(eV·Å-2) | 悬挂键种类 | |||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| (100)B | (100)A | (010) | (001)B | (001)A | ( | ||
| Ga(I)—O(I) | 11.28 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 4 | 0 |
| Ga(I)—O(II) | 10.99 | 0 | 0 | 4 | 0 | 0 | 0 |
| Ga(I)—O(III) | 8.61 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 2 |
| Ga(II)—O(I) | 5.10 | 0 | 0 | 4 | 0 | 0 | 0 |
| Ga(II)—O(II) | 4.74 | 0 | 2 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 |
| Ga(II)—O(III) | 2.75 | 2 | 0 | 4 | 8 | 0 | 0 |
| 化学键密度/Å-2 | 0.11 | 0.11 | 0.17 | 0.20 | 0.10 | 0.10 | |
Fig.7 Surface energies of low-index crystal planes of β-Ga2O3 (before and after relaxation) from theoretical calculations, where “A” and “B” denote surface terminations with different atomic configurations
Fig.9 (a) Valence band spectrum of 0.01% Sn-doped Ga2O3 sample measured by HAXPES; (b) TDOS and PDOS of Ga2O3 obtained from DFT calculations; (c) valence band photoelectron spectrum of 0.01% Sn-doped Ga2O3 sample[31]
Fig.10 Schematic illustration of the origin of polar optical phonon scattering and acoustic deformation potential scattering in the Ga2O3 lattice (a) and schematic illustration of the origin of ionized impurity scattering and neutral impurity scattering (b)
Fig.11 Temperature dependence of electron mobility (a), carrier concentration (b), and Hall coefficient (c) in β-Ga2O3. The solid and dashed lines in (a) and (b) represent the Hall and drift electron mobility (carrier concentration), respectively. The open squares represent the experimental data obtained using the Hall effect measurement[99]
Fig.13 Potential electron donors in gallium oxide, including Si contamination, oxygen vacancies, gallium interstitials, and hydrogen-related impurities
Fig.14 (a) Ea of Si-doped β-Ga2O3 as a function of the cube root of Nd, by extrapolating to zero concentration, the ionization energy of Ea is approximately 36.3 meV[70]; (b) ionic radii of major n-type dopants in β-Ga2O3
Fig.15 (a) HAXPES valence-band spectra of (Si x Ga1-x )2O3 films with different Si content, along with a magnified view (×70) of the conduction-band feature region; (b) enlarged views of the valence-band edge (×5) and the conduction-band feature (×50); (c) HSE-calculated band structures, total density of states, and projected density of states for Si-, Ge-, and Sn-doped supercells. The dopant s-state PDOS is magnified (×10), VBM is set to zero energy[121]
生长 方式 | 优势 | 优化方法 | 生长速率/ (μm·h-1) | 厚度/μm | 最高迁移率/(cm2·V-1·s-1) | 载流子浓度 范围/cm-3 | 器件应用 | 未来发展 | 参考文献 |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| HVPE | 生长速率快 | — | 10 | 15 | 149 | 1015~1019 | 垂直SBD 垂直MOSFET | 优化粗糙度、不均匀度、外延缺陷控制 | [ |
| MOCVD | 大规模生产 | — | 1.9 | 4.5 | 200 | 1014~1020 | 横向MOSFET 2DEG 垂直SBD | 更厚的外延膜、大尺寸、外延缺陷控制 | [ |
| 使用 | 4.5 | 6.3 | 190 | [ | |||||
| 紧密耦合喷头 | 10 | — | — | [ | |||||
| MBE | 界面质量高,可实现原子级精度控制 | — | 0.11 | 0.44 | 135 | 1015~1019 | 横向MOSFET 2DEG | 更快的生长速率 2DEG | [ |
| 金属交换催化 | — | 0.9 | 136 | [ | |||||
| 亚氧化物 | 1 | 1 | 124 | [ |
Table 3 Overview of different Ga2O3 epitaxial growth methods
生长 方式 | 优势 | 优化方法 | 生长速率/ (μm·h-1) | 厚度/μm | 最高迁移率/(cm2·V-1·s-1) | 载流子浓度 范围/cm-3 | 器件应用 | 未来发展 | 参考文献 |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| HVPE | 生长速率快 | — | 10 | 15 | 149 | 1015~1019 | 垂直SBD 垂直MOSFET | 优化粗糙度、不均匀度、外延缺陷控制 | [ |
| MOCVD | 大规模生产 | — | 1.9 | 4.5 | 200 | 1014~1020 | 横向MOSFET 2DEG 垂直SBD | 更厚的外延膜、大尺寸、外延缺陷控制 | [ |
| 使用 | 4.5 | 6.3 | 190 | [ | |||||
| 紧密耦合喷头 | 10 | — | — | [ | |||||
| MBE | 界面质量高,可实现原子级精度控制 | — | 0.11 | 0.44 | 135 | 1015~1019 | 横向MOSFET 2DEG | 更快的生长速率 2DEG | [ |
| 金属交换催化 | — | 0.9 | 136 | [ | |||||
| 亚氧化物 | 1 | 1 | 124 | [ |
Fig.17 Typical HVPE growth system, mainly consists of precursor supply system, reaction chamber, heating system, and exhaust gas treatment and control monitoring. (a) Schematic diagram; (b) physical diagram
Fig.18 (a) AFM surface image of heart-shaped etch pits formed at stacking faults after H3PO4 etching[191]; (b) cross-sectional STEM image of a bright spot formed gas-phase microparticle-induced defects[191]; (c)~(e) cross-sectional BF-STEM images of type 1-3 defect formed at stacking faults after KOH + NaOH molten solution etching[192]; (f) synchrotron X-ray topography image of SBD (black/white contrast) overlaid with DICM image of polycrystalline defect #2 (pink contrast) [193]; (g) high-magnification DICM image of line-shaped defect[194]; (h) AFM image of surface defect formed at probe pressure[195]
Fig.19 Typical MOCVD system, including gas/precursor delivery, injection control, showerhead, reaction chamber, and pressure control unit with high-capacity pump. (a), (b) Schematic diagram; (c) physical diagram
Fig.20 Strategies for enhancing electrical properties of β-Ga2O3 in MOCVD. (a) HF cleaning; (b) low-temperature buffer layer; (c) water vapor-assisted catalysis; (d) substrate surface optimization
Fig.21 (a) SIMS depth profiles of Si impurity in UID homoepitaxy samples[205]; (b) surface AFM images on the as-grown surface of sample grown at no HF cleaning; (c)~(e) surface AFM images on the as-grown surface of sample grown at HF dipped[209]; (f) plots the integrated peak density obtained in panel as a function of HF exposure time
Fig.22 (a) 2D cross-sectional schematic of the channel structure used for the uniformly and intentionally Si-doped films for doping range of 1017~1020 cm-3(GR = growth rate, HT = high-temperature, LT = low-temperature); (b) atomic force microscopy scans for the (010) Fe-doped Ga2O3 substrate before and after the substrate cleaning process; (c) atomic concentrations of Fe and Si versus depth of the channel; (d) magnified scan showing the Fe decay tail from the substrate into the LT buffer [206]
Fig.23 (a) Depth profiles of N, H, and C impurities obtained by SIMS in a β-Ga2O3 film deposited with N2O gas; (b) a comparison of room-temperature Hall mobility demonstrates the effect of using an N2O precursor versus a conventional O2 process[202]
Fig.25 (a) Carrier concentration-device correlation in semiconductors; (b) schematics of typical device structures: vertical device[221], lateral device[222], solar-blind ultraviolet photodetection[223], and ohmic contact[224]
Fig.27 Sympetalous defect consisting of a nanotube in the substrate and polygonal pyramid in the epilayer film[227]. (a) Cross section schematic; (b) TEM image; (c) AFM image; (d) secondary electron SEM image
Fig.28 3D UVL MPPL (a), processed images (b), plan-view UVL MPPL image (c), optical microscope image (d), cross-sectional (e) and processed UVL MPPL images (f) around the nanopipe array and hillock in (01ˉ0)-oriented sample[229]
Fig.29 Surface view in optical microscopic, FESEM and AFM images of β-Ga2O3 epi-films grown on on-axis (010) (a), (c), (e) and 2° off-cut (b), (d),(f) semi-insulating β-Ga2O3 substrates under at 60 Torr, 950 ℃ and O2 containing 10 ppm H2O, respectively [142]
Fig.30 AFM images of substrates with miscut-angles of 0.1°, 2°, 4°, and 6° towards c (upper row) and epitaxial grown layers on them (lower row). The substrate is characterized by equally spaced and regular arranged steps[234]
Fig.31 (a) Stick and ball model illustrating the double positioning on the (100) plane of β-Ga2O3, dark green and bright green balls correspond to tetrahedral (Ga1) and octahedral bound (Ga2) gallium atoms, respectively; (b) schematic sketch showing step-flow growth and growth proceeding through nucleation of two-dimensional islands [234]
Fig.32 (a) Cross-sectional TEM bright field image of a layer grown on a substrate with a miscut direction toward [001ˉ]; (b) cross-sectional TEM bright field image of a layer grown on a substrate with a miscut direction toward [001][51]
Fig.33 High-resolution STEM images of β-Ga2O3 films grown with TMGa on the (001) Sn-doped β-Ga2O3 substrate[211]. (a) Cracking in the film; (b) zigzag at the interface; (c) high mag zigzag area
Fig.34 A comparison of light microscopy images of the films grown with different thicknesses while keeping other growth parameters fixed as well as the showerhead distance at 8 cm[219]: (a) 2.0 μm, (b) 3.0 μm and (c) 4.0 μm; AFM images of UID (100) β-Ga2O3 homoepitaxial films with different thicknesses at the showerhead distance of 1.5 cm[219]: (d) 2.2 μm(0.5 μm×0.5 μm), (e) 3 μm(0.5 μm×0.5 μm) and (f) 3 μm (5 μm×5 μm)
Fig.35 Micrographs of Ga2O3 epitaxial sample 261B in the center (a) and edge of the sample (b); AFM micrographs of pit (c) and surface (d) morphology for sample 261B; (e) particles on sample 261C[240]
Fig.36 Typical MBE system, primarily composed of an ultra-high vacuum system, effusion cells, a substrate heating system, and an in-situ real-time monitoring system. (a) Physical photograph; (b) schematic diagram
Fig.37 RHEED patterns (a) and SEM images (b) of Ga2O3 film grown on (100) β-Ga2O3 substrate by MBE[256]; (c) AFM images of 60 nm thick (010) UID layers grown on Sn-doped β-Ga2O3 (010) substrates at different temperatures by PAMBE[252]; (d) AFM images of Ga2O3 UID films grown by MBE on Ga2O3 (010) substrates under varying growth temperatures by ozone MBE[253];(e) (020) ω-2θ scan diffraction peak of 135 nm thick β-Ga2O3 (010) film grown under slightly Ga-rich conditions with an oxygen flux of 1.2×10-5 Torr by PAMBE[252]; (f) (020) XRD rocking curves from Ga2O3 epitaxial films grown at various temperatures and (010) β-Ga2O3 substrate by ozone MBE[253]
Fig.38 (a) XRD θ-2θ diffraction patterns around β-Ga2O3 (020) reflection peaks; (b) AFM image of the UID film; (c) β-Ga2O3 (022) reciprocal space mapping analysis; (d) room-temperature electron mobilities and carrier concentrations of UID β-Ga2O3 films and Sn-doped films grown at various Sn cell temperatures[259]
Fig.39 (a) Dependence of Sn doping concentration on Sn cell temperature; (b) carrier concentration and Hall mobility as a function of Sn cell temperature; (c) SIMS profiles of Sn doping film; (d) relationship between the doping concentrations of Sn and Ge and the growth temperature[144]
Fig.40 (a) Schematic of the needle-valve-controlled effusion cell[264]; (b) schematic of the hybrid MBE system, the diluted disilane cylinder is placed in a gas cabinet equipped with gas detectors for safety[143]
Fig.41 Room-temperature electron mobility as a function of carrier concentration for Sn-, Si-, and Ge-doped β-Ga2O3 thin films grown by MBE[63,71,143?145,259,267]
Fig.42 (a) Schematic show impinging fluxes and potential catalyst layer on surface of film during MOCATAXY growth[268]; (b) comparison of growth rates between conventional MBE and MOCATAXY techniques for β-Ga2O3 films, evaluated across different crystallographic orientations and growth temperatures[269]; (c) comparison of the surface morphology of β-Ga2O3 films grown by MOCATAXY on different crystal planes and those grown by conventional methods, as measured by AFM[270]
Fig.44 (a) Transition levels of acceptors from group VA, IIA, IIB in Ga2O3. Each center exhibits two transition levels, the (0/-) acceptor transition level as well as a deep (+/0) donor level, results are presented for N on each unique O site, and for the cation impurities on the two unique Ga sites[275]; (b) formation energies of the most stable form of each acceptor impurity in its negative charge state as a function of oxygen chemical potential[275]; (c) schematic representation of the coupling between the Bi 6s orbitals and the O 2p band to form the occupied intermediate valence band in (Ga1-x Bi x )2O3 alloys[280]; (d) the structures of β-(Rh0.5Ga0.5)2O3[282]; (e) electronic band structures of IrGa-I configuration[283]
Fig.45 (a) Schematic crystalline structures showing the multi-step structural phase transition processes from GaN to N-doped β-Ga2O3; (b) schematic diagram showing the formation of acceptor levels in β-Ga2O3: NO-VGa[130];(c) calculated minimum energy path from initial state to final state using CI-NBE. IS denotes the initial state β-Ga2O3: NGa(I)-VO(II), TS transition state, and FS final state β-Ga2O3: NO(II)-VGa(I)[285]
| 实现方式 | 掺杂策略 | 空穴浓度/cm-3 | 迁移率/(cm2·V-1·s-1) | 激活能/eV | 参考文献 |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| 外延 | 9.9×1018~8.1×1019 | 0.13~0.92 | — | [ | |
| N | 1.04×1018 | 0.47 | 0.168 | [ | |
| 离子注入 | P | 1017~1018 cm-3 | 0.39~1.51 | — | [ |
| Mg、N | <1014 | — | — | [ | |
| Se-Mg合金 | 2.55×1016 | 1.1 | — | [ | |
| 退火 | Ga空位 | 1014~1017 | 0.4~8 | 0.17~0.56 | [ |
| 1015 | 0.2 | 1.1 | [ | ||
| 固-固相变 | N | 1.56×1016 | 23.6 | 0.165 | [ |
| 低温印刷 | Cu | 1014 | 0.229~0.624 | — | [ |
Table 4 Overview of different P-type Ga2O3 thin film growth methods
| 实现方式 | 掺杂策略 | 空穴浓度/cm-3 | 迁移率/(cm2·V-1·s-1) | 激活能/eV | 参考文献 |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| 外延 | 9.9×1018~8.1×1019 | 0.13~0.92 | — | [ | |
| N | 1.04×1018 | 0.47 | 0.168 | [ | |
| 离子注入 | P | 1017~1018 cm-3 | 0.39~1.51 | — | [ |
| Mg、N | <1014 | — | — | [ | |
| Se-Mg合金 | 2.55×1016 | 1.1 | — | [ | |
| 退火 | Ga空位 | 1014~1017 | 0.4~8 | 0.17~0.56 | [ |
| 1015 | 0.2 | 1.1 | [ | ||
| 固-固相变 | N | 1.56×1016 | 23.6 | 0.165 | [ |
| 低温印刷 | Cu | 1014 | 0.229~0.624 | — | [ |
Fig.46 (a)~(c) Top-view SEM images of β-Ga2O3 thin films grown on c-plane (0001) sapphire substrates with different off-angles; (d) XRD rocking curves of the symmetric (4ˉ02) reflection of β-Ga2O3 thin films grown on c-plane (0001) sapphire substrates with different off-angles; (e) XRD φ-scan of the (4ˉ02) reflection of a β-Ga2O3 thin film grown on a c-plane (0001) sapphire substrate with an off-angle of 6°; (f) electron Hall mobility as a function of carrier concentration for Si-doped β-Ga2O3 thin films grown on c-plane (0001) sapphire substrates with different off-angles. The sapphire substrates are off-cut toward the <112ˉ0> direction, and the film thickness is approximately 6 μm[307]
Fig.48 AFM images of Ga?O? thin films grown on SiC substrates with different off-angles: (a) 0°, (b) 4°, (c) 8°; (d) full width at half maximum of the (4ˉ02) diffraction peak of β-Ga2O3 thin films; (e) room-temperature electron mobility as a function of carrier concentration[310]
Fig.49 Display an orientation variant model of (2ˉ01) β-Ga2O3 on diamond from a top perspective. The red sphere represents the oxygen atoms on the β-Ga2O3 (201ˉ) crystal plane, arranged in a tilted hexagonal pattern above the carbon atoms (brown) in the cubic diamond lattice. (a) Display the correspondence between the β-Ga2O3 [010] direction and the diamond [110] direction; (b) display the corresponding relationship between the (2ˉ01) β-Ga2O3 [1ˉ32ˉ] direction and the diamond [110] direction[311]
Fig.50 (a) Photograph of the α-Ga2O3 epilayer grown on a 2-inch sapphire substrate; (b) corresponding thickness distribution; (c), (d) XRD rocking curves of the α-Ga2O3 (0006) and (101ˉ4) reflections, respectively, measured at six different positions (P1~P6) indicated in (b)[326]
Fig.51 (a) In-plane orientation relationship between the sapphire (101ˉ4) and ε-Ga2O3 (013) planes; (b) schematic illustration of the ε-Ga2O3/sapphire epitaxial relationship and the associated 120° three-fold rotational domains[378]
Fig.52 (a) 3D granular defects observed in the ε-Ga2O3 thin film grown on a sapphire substrate[379]; (b) flat SEM image of ε-Ga2O3 striped ELO sample grown for 4 h[379]; (c) low magnification HAADF-STEM image of the cross-section of Al2O3 (10 nm)/ ε-Ga2O3 thin film on Al2O3 substrate[380]
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